Module 4 - Technical and stylistic correctness in writing
If you cannot find specific examples, you may not really know what you're talking about.
In this part of the course, we will examine some of the basics of good written communication. First we will look at some of the features of English grammar and punctuation. We will not delve too deeply, but rather just look at the essential features that will enable you to take control of your writing and ensure that you can achieve technical correctness in your use of English. Grammar and punctuation, of course, are not everything. But they are the foundations of all writing so that gives them some importance. They provide the logical structure for of our written work, a structure that is anchored deep inside human communication at its most basic level. I believe that applying the underlying rules of English helps us to achieve the most elevated aims we set for ourselves because we are making the best use of the tools of communication.
We will also look at some important stylistic considerations, concision and concreteness. All of these elements contribute to the broad notion of communication – academic writing is a robust and demanding form of communication involving language, so some understanding of the mechanics of the language is necessary.
Logical structures
Grammar and punctuation provide the logical structure for written work. Attention to grammar and punctuation will help ensure a coherent and logical final product, and one that has professional polish. Get into the habit of analysing your writing for technical correctness. I would first like to introduce some of the terminology of traditional grammar.
Elements of grammar
- Eight parts of speech:
- Noun
- Adjective
- Verb
- Adverb
- Preposition
- Pronoun
- Conjunction and
- Interjection
- Two “numbers”: singular and plural
- Five “cases”: of which the most important are subject (nominative), direct object (accusative) and possessive (genitive)
- Three “persons”: first, second and third
- Two “voices”: active and passive
- Up to five “moods”: the most important for our purposes being indicative (or declarative)
- Fifteen “tenses”: 5 x 3: simple, emphatic, continuous, perfect and perfect-continuous, in past, present and future
- Four “units”: word, phrase, clause, sentence.
Sentences exist to show the interrelationship of nouns, and the nouns will occupy particular conceptual positions within a sentence to show these relationships. When a noun is in the “nominative case” it is the subject. From there it forms a direct relationship to the verb, and potentially to the object (“accusative case”). Placing the grammatical subject at the start ensures the most efficient information delivery system.
Sentences should begin with key words, not strings of “dead words” (words that do not carry much meaning). For example, do not begin a sentence like this: “It is thought that because of the…” Placing the subject up front can eliminate half the comprehension problems instantly.
As an exercise, look at a piece of your current writing and see how you begin an important sentence (such as the first sentence of your introduction). Then think about what the sentence is actually about. Do you show what the sentence is about at the beginning, or do you start the sentence with words that do not have much meaning? Try redrafting to bring an important word to the start, then ensure that the structure that follows is grammatical. You may find that examining your sentences in this way will lead to greater clarity.
Pronouns, such as “I”, “it”, “him”, “her”, “their” or “this”, stand in for nouns. They are useful for making the language flow more smoothly. When you use a pronoun, the noun to which it refers is known as its antecedent. Try not to overuse pronouns, and particularly watch for difficulties in linking the pronoun to its antecedent.
Floating pronouns
Problems arise when pronouns float around without an obvious antecedent. Starting a sentence with a pronoun may be unwise. For example:
“The rise in the dollar has been marked by reduced exports in the cattle industry. This has worried some economists.” (The word “this” is a demonstrative pronoun, and one that is common in academic writing.)
Does this sentence say that the rise in the dollar or the reduced exports have worried economists? By using “this”, the writer has added ambiguity to the information, something that is always unwise in academic work. The problem can usually be easily fixed, perhaps like this: “The rise in the dollar has been marked by reduced exports in the cattle industry. This rise has worried some economists.”
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns such as its, his, hers, ours, theirs, yours never have an apostrophe. For example: “The cat chased its tail.” In this sentence, the possessive pronoun “its” does not require an apostrophe since it is already possessive. Errors in the use of “its” are understandable, since this word can also be a contraction. When you see the word “its” determine if it is a contraction (use an apostrophe), or possessive, (do not use an apostrophe).
Through the verb, specifically the “finite verb”, you know whether the action described in the sentence is taking place in the past, present or future. Declarative sentences (sentences that make statements) can only be grammatical if they contain a finite verb. A finite verb can be changed (inflected) to indicate past, present or future tense: wrote, writes, will write. You can tell that you have a suitable finite verb if you can inflect it for tense.
Consistency of tenses
Changing verbal tenses randomly through your writing is annoying for the reader and may be confusing. Some theses are in the past tense, some the present and some dabble in the future tense (for example, this thesis will examine, will analyse). As a general rule, be consistent. Steer clear of the future tense, as it generally is not suitable for reporting work that has already taken place.
The classical sentence construction in English is subject-verb-object (SVO). The verb connects the subject of sentence to the thing being acted upon, the object. For example: “Annette writes the paper.” In this sentence, the object is “the paper”. In this example, the finite verb is “writes”. You can see how it could be inflected to “wrote” or “will write”. Therefore we know that it is (technically) correct. This sentence consists of just one clause, and is therefore a simple sentence, compared with complex and compound sentences.
Not all sentences will contain just one clause (like our previous example). A clause is a group of words containing a subject, verb and object that either stands on its own as a simple sentence or forms part of a bigger sentence when joined to other clauses. A variety of sentence structures are possible. The reason we have different sentence structures is so that we can express various kinds of relationships. Here are the main kinds to recognise:
Complex sentences: containing a main clause and attached sub-ordinate clause/s. The dominant clause contains the main information while the sub-ordinate clause/s contain extra information. For example: Smith and Jones Aquatic in Brisbane will supply the equipment, though not before 30 June.
Compound sentences: containing clause/s of equal grammatical status. The clauses each contain key information. For example: Smith and Jones Aquatic in Brisbane will supply the equipment and we expect to source software from this company as well.
Compound-complex sentences: containing two or more main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. For example: Smith and Jones Aquatic in Brisbane will supply the equipment and we expect to source software from this company as well, though we will have a limited computer budget this year.
The most important thing to remember when writing these more complicated sentences is to ensure that the clauses are joined together correctly. In many cases you will be using a conjunction, and the conjunctions are highlighted in these examples. In some cases, a semi-colon (;) can be used instead of a conjunction.
The “voices” dictate sentence structure. A common misconception is that they are related to verbal tense, but they are not – both of the voices can be in any of the tenses. Recall our SVO example, “Annette writes the paper”. This sentence is in active voice, and you will notice that the subject of the sentence, Annette, is prominent.
You can undertake the “passive transformation” and write instead: “The paper is written by Annette.” The (former) object, the paper, is now more prominent. The former subject (Annette) is now called the agent, indicated by the addition of the word “by” and the verb is longer.
Passive voice sentences generally are longer than active voice sentences, which is why some professional writers do not like to use them. However, passive voice may be needed if the active subject is unknown or not easily stated. For example: “Albert’s father was killed in the Second World War”. In this sentence there is no “agent” because we do not know who carried out the action of the sentence.
Also, sometimes the agent just is not important enough to highlight, and this is often the case in scientific writing. Be aware, though, that passive voice can distance the writer from the reader and from responsibility for the action in the sentence, particularly if the agent is removed. For example:
"The hospital beds have been shut down." This passive sentence does not say who or what shut down the hospital beds.
Adding an agent may help (notice the word “by” to indicate agent): "The hospital beds have been shut down by the Health Department."
Once you have an agent, the sentence may be rewritten in active voice: "The Health Department shut down the hospital beds."
These punctuation marks are important for meaning in text and cannot be ignored or used randomly. Apostrophes have two main purposes:
- To indicate contraction: “It’s [It is] a pity that people don’t [do not] care about apostrophes.”
- To show possession (in nouns, not pronouns): “The editor’s lament” for singular; “The editors’ lament” for plural.
Since academic writing does not allow contractions, the main reason to use apostrophes in academic work is to show possession.
Common apostrophe errors
People often, wrongly, place apostrophes into simple plurals, resulting in errors such as: apple’s, pear’s, avocado’s.
Conversely, people sometimes leave apostrophes out where they are needed. For example:
- The prawns whiskers
- The projects results
- The managers decisions.
To correct, you will need to know whether the subjects are singular or plural:
- The prawn’s whiskers/The prawns’ whiskers
- The project’s results/The projects’ results
- The manager’s decisions/The managers’ decisions.
Iron rule for apostrophes
Simple plurals never need an apostrophe. If the word is a contraction or a possessive, apply the apostrophe accordingly. If the word is neither, do not use an apostrophe.
In general, commas are more complicated (and more subject to stylistic variations) than apostrophes. Commas separate ideas in a sentence and otherwise make meaning clear. They provide natural pauses within a sentence, to regulate its rhythm in ways that assist meaning.
However, comma use can vary between different English user groups. For example, American English tends to use more commas than Australian English. Therefore, comma use may vary depending upon which form of English you are using. If you are publishing, you will need to check the stylistic requirements of your target journal.
Despite some stylistic variations, commas do have some usage rules, in particular:
To avoid ambiguity. For example: “When the father finished washing, the children went to the beach.” Without a comma here, ambiguity may arise over joining “washing” and “the children” together.
Between adjectives before a noun. For example: “A large, black van….” Note that you should use commas only when the adjectives modify the noun separately. If the modifying adjectives are working more closely together, such as “The grand old duke of York”, commas is not required.
In a list to separate the elements. For example: “The basic stages of writing an article are: outlining, researching, drafting, checking facts, redrafting and editing.” Generally you would use commas in lists that contain single-word elements. If your list contains elements that are phrases or clauses, you will generally separate them using semi-colons. Also, be aware of a stylistic issue known as the “Oxford comma”, which is generally used in the American English style. This style would require use of a comma before the final element of the list – in the example above, an Oxford comma would be placed before the final element “and editing”.
To distinguish parenthetical words and phrases. For example: “My view, therefore, is that editors should always be consistent.” In this case, you must use a pair of commas to be correct.
No comma between subject and verb
Do not let a comma stand between a grammatical subject and its verb. This important grammatical relationship should not be separated. Therefore you would write: “A grammatical subject links strongly to its verb.” You would not write: “A grammatical subject, links strongly to its verb.”
Concision
Concision is one of the stylistic themes we will consider in this module. Concision enables your readers to think clearly about your research. In essence, concise writing is direct writing. Excessively wordy writing is usually hard to read. Extra words often get in the way of your meaning. You might be surprised how your capacity to communicate research improves when you remove excess words. Clarity and concision are essential for carrying an argument. These principles should inform both your writing and your self-editing.
Concise writing depends upon your ability to read your own work critically. When you know what to look for, your task becomes easier. Evaluate all parts of your writing to ensure that each element has earned its place. Also, evaluate the relationship between your thoughts and the words you choose to express those thoughts.
- What is this paragraph’s main idea or unit of argument?
- Is this main idea clearly introduced in the theme sentence?
- Does every subsequent sentence in the paragraph support and provide evidence for the theme sentence? (If not, remove the sentence.)
- Is each paragraph adding information or argument to the chapter? (Remind yourself regularly of the purpose of each chapter.)
- Do you have a sequence of several paragraphs that contain only one major idea? Can this idea be stated in one paragraph alone?
- Ask yourself: How can I state my argument more directly, more explicitly?
- Is the first sentence of the whole chapter, and of each individual paragraph, strong, brief and direct?
If your sentence or paragraph seems wordy, underline the words that carry actual information. Can any of the non-underlined parts be eliminated? Note that not all the words can be removed, as some (like prepositions and conjunctions) help to define relationships. But you may find that you have repeated information or have over-explained things. Find ways to remove any words that you can see are surplus to requirements.
Concrete writing
Academic writing is communication, and communication becomes more difficult if the writer uses mainly abstract forms of expression as opposed to words that relate more to the world of the senses.
Concrete terms refer to objects or events that are available to the senses, such as knife, chair, yellow, cold, running, etc.
Abstract terms name things that are not available to the senses, such as strategy, temporality, convergence, hegemony, etc.
Abstract terms are often required in academic work, as they may form part of the technical vocabulary of your discipline. Relying entirely on abstract terminology, though, is risky as the reader may not share your understanding of it.
- Use clear, straightforward English.
- Use short and well-structured sentences.
- Explain each step of the concept in one sentence each.
- Give concrete examples.
- Be as specific as possible.
- Help the reader to see what you are talking about.
Turning abstract terms into concrete terms is essential for critical thinking. Thesis writing may stall because the writer has nothing concrete to say. Abstract terminology cannot in itself lead to a further argument, proposition or hypothesis. It tends to be a closed system because it refers only to itself, not to the real world. If you have a mental block, try editing for concrete expression.
- Say what year something happened – not “a few years ago” but exactly when.
- Do not say “in today’s society” – there is no single society.
- Name concepts but also explain how they operate by giving examples.
- Be clear at every stage of your explanation.
- Name names, give detail.
Finding specific concrete terms doesn't require a big vocabulary or a vivid imagination, just the willingness to recall what you already know. You should know specific details because you have gathered them in the course of your research.